Summarize How Cultural Diversity in the Himalayas Is Displayed in Local Art
Nepal
Orientation
Identification. Nepal is named for the Kathmandu Valley, where the nation's founder established a capital in the late eighteenth century. Nepali culture represents a fusion of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongolian influences, the result of a long history of migration, conquest, and trade.
Location and Geography. Nepal is a roughly rectangular country with an expanse of 147,181 foursquare miles (381,200 square kilometers). To the south, west, and due east it is bordered by Indian states; to the north lies Tibet. Nepal is dwelling house to the Himalayan Mountains, including Mount Everest. From the summit of Everest, the topography plunges to just above sea level at the Gangetic Patently on the southern border. This drop divides the land into three horizontal zones: the high mountains, the lush fundamental hills, and the flat, arid Terai region in the south. Fast-moving, snowfall-fed rivers cut through the hills and mountains from northward to southward, carving deep valleys and steep ridges. The rugged topography has created numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted. Although merchandise has brought distinct ethnic groups into contact, the geography has created diversity in language and subsistence practices. The result is a country with over 30-vi indigenous groups and over fifty languages.
Census. The population in 1997 was just over 22.6 million. Although infant mortality rates are extremely loftier, fertility rates are higher. High birth rates in rural areas take led to state shortages, forcing clearing to the Terai, where farmland is more plentiful, and to urban areas, where jobs are available. Migration into cities has led to over-crowding and pollution. The Kathmandu Valley has a population of approximately 700,000.
Linguistic Amalgamation. After conquering much of the territory that constitutes modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1743–1775) established Gorkhali (Nepali) as the national linguistic communication. Nepali is an Indo-European linguistic communication derived from Sanskrit with which it shares and near residents speak at least some Nepali, which is the medium of government, educational activity, and most radio and television broadcasts. For many people Nepali is secondary to the language of their ethnic group or region. This situation puts certain groups at a disadvantage in terms of education and civil service positions. Since the establishment of a multiparty commonwealth in 1990, linguistic issues take emerged as hotly debated topics.
Symbolism. The culture has many symbols from Hindu and Buddhist sources. Auspicious signs, including the ancient Hindu swastika and Shiva's trident, decorate buses, trucks, and walls. Other meaning symbols are the emblems (tree, turn, sun) used to designate political parties.
Prominent among symbols for the nation as a whole are the national flower and bird, the rhododendron and danfe; the flag; the plumed crown worn by the kings; and the crossed kukhris (curved knives) of the Gurkhas, mercenary regiments that take fought for the British Army in a number of wars. Images of the current monarch and the imperial family are displayed in many homes and places of business organization. In nationalistic rhetoric the metaphor of a garden with many different kinds of flowers is used to symbolize national unity amidst cultural multifariousness.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Mongolian tribes from the east called Kiratis brought Buddhism in the 7th
Nepal
or eighth century B.C.E. Hinduism flourished in the third and fourth centuries C.E. under the Licchavis, an Indo-Aryan people from northern India, and after the migration of Hindus from Bharat during the Mughal period. The Hindu Malla dynasties reigned in the Kathmandu Valley between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, encouraging tolerance toward Buddhism and an orthodox, degree-oriented class of Hinduism. Since unification in the late eighteenth century and through the hundred-year period of Rana dominion, the culture of hill Hindus, Parbatiya, has been ascendant.
The birth of the nation is dated to Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the Kathmandu Valley kingdoms in 1768. The expansionist reigns of Shah and his successors carved out a territory twice the size of modern Nepal. However, territorial clashes with the Chinese in the tardily eighteenth century and the British in the early nineteenth century pushed the borders dorsum to their current configuration.
National Identity. To unify a geographically and culturally divided country, Shah perpetuated the civilisation and language of high-caste Hindus and instituted a social hierarchy in which non-Hindus besides as Hindus were ranked according to degree-based principles. Caste laws were farther articulated in the National Lawmaking of 1854.
By privileging the language and civilization of high-caste Hindus, the land has marginalized non-Hindu and depression-caste groups. Resentment in recent years has led to the organization of ethnopolitical parties, agitation for minority rights, and talk about the formation of a separate state for Mongolian indigenous groups.
Despite ethnic unrest, Nepalis accept a strong sense of national identity and pride. Sacred Hindu and Buddhist sites and the spectacular mountains draw tourists and pilgrims and give citizens a sense of importance in the globe. Other natural resources, such as rivers and flora and creature are a source of national pride.
Ethnic Relations. The population consists of numerous racial, cultural, and linguistic groups that frequently are divided into three wide categories: Indo-Nepalese, Tibeto-Nepalese, and indigenous Nepalese. The Indo-Nepalese migrated from Bharat over several
The village of Siklis, in the Himalayas. Village houses are usually clustered in river valleys or along ridge tops.
centuries; they practise Hinduism, have Caucasian features, and speak Indo-Aryan languages. They have settled primarily in the lower hills and river valleys and the Terai. The Tibeto-Nepalese have distinctively Mongolian features and speak Tibeto-Burmese languages; these groups occupy the higher hills and mountainous areas. Different groups within this category exercise Buddhism, animism, or Hinduism. There are scattered tribes of indigenous Nepalis, whose origins probably predate the arrival of Indo- and Tibeto-Nepalese peoples.
Hindu castes and Buddhist and animist ethnic groups were historically complanate into a single degree hierarchy. At the tiptop are loftier-caste Hindus. Below them are alcohol-drinking ( matwali ) castes, which include Mongolian ethnic groups. At the lesser are untouchable Hindu castes that accept traditionally performed occupations considered defiling by higher castes. The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley have a caste system that has been absorbed into the national degree bureaucracy.
Historically, members of the highest castes have endemic the majority of land and enjoyed the greatest political and economic privileges. Members of lower castes have been excluded from political representation and economic opportunities. The untouchable castes were not permitted to own land, and their civil liberties were confining by law. Caste discrimination is officially illegal but has non disappeared. In 1991, lxxx percent of positions in the civil service, army, and constabulary were occupied by members of the two highest castes.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Utilize of Space
Nepal historically was one of the to the lowest degree urbanized countries in the globe, but urbanization is accelerating, especially in the capital, and urban sprawl and pollution have become serious problems. Kathmandu and the neighboring cities of Patan and Bhaktapur are known for pagoda-style and shikhara temples, Buddhist stupas, palaces, and multistory brick houses with elaborately carved wooden door frames and screened windows. Although the largest and almost famous buildings are well maintained, many smaller temples and older residential buildings are falling into disrepair.
At the pinnacle of British dominion in Bharat, the Rana rulers incorporated Western architectural styles into palaces and public buildings. Rana palaces convey a sense of grandeur and clear separation from the peasantry. The current king'southward palace'due south scale and fortress-like quality illustrate the distance between rex and commoner.
Rural architecture is generally very simple, reflecting the building styles of dissimilar caste and ethnic groups, the materials available, and the climate. Rural houses generally have one or 2 stories and are fabricated of mud brick with a thatched roof. Village houses tend to be clustered in river valleys or along ridge tops.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Many Nepalis do not feel that they have eaten a real meal unless it has included a sizable helping of rice. Nigh residents swallow a large rice repast twice a mean solar day, usually at midmorning and in the early evening. Rice generally is served with dal, a lentil dish, and tarkari, a cooked vegetable. Often, the meal includes a pickle achar, made of a fruit or vegetable. In poorer and college-altitude areas, where rice is scarce, the staple is dhiro, a thick mush made of corn or millet. In areas where wheat is plentiful, rice may be supplemented by flat breadstuff, roti. Most families consume from individual plates while seated on the flooring. Though some urbanites use Western utensils, it is more mutual to eat with the hands.
Villagers gloat the finish of the plowing flavor. Most Nepalese are subsistence farmers.
Conventions regarding eating and drinking are tied to caste. Orthodox high-caste Hindus are strictly vegetarian and do not drink alcohol. Other castes may drink alcohol and consume pork and even beef. Traditionally, caste rules also dictate who may swallow with or take food from whom. Members of the college castes were especially reluctant to eat food prepared by strangers. Consequently, eating out has not been a major part of the civilization. Still, caste rules are relaxing to suit the modern world, and the tourist economy is making restaurants a common feature of urban life.
Nutrient Community at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and other important life-wheel events, feasts are more often than not hosted by the families directly involved, and numerous guests are invited. At such occasions, it is customary to seat guests on woven grass mats on the ground outside one's dwelling house, often in lines separating castes and honoring people of loftier condition. Food is served on leaf plates, which can exist easily disposed of. These customs, nevertheless, similar most others, vary past caste-ethnic groups, and are changing apace to suit modernistic tastes.
Basic Economy. The large majority of the people are subsistence farmers who grow rice, maize, millet, barley, wheat, and vegetables. At low altitudes, agriculture is the principal means of subsistence, while at higher altitudes agropastoralism prevails. Many households maintain chickens and goats. However, few families own more than than a small number of cows, water buffalo, or yaks considering the mountainous topography does not provide grazing state for big animals.
Nepal is 1 of the poorest countries in the earth. This poverty can be attributed to scarce natural resources, a difficult terrain, landlocked geography, and a weak infrastructure just also to feudal land tenure systems, government corruption, and the ineffectiveness of development efforts. Foreign aid rarely goes to the neediest sectors of the population but is concentrate in urban areas, providing jobs for the urban middle grade. The name of the national currency is rupee.
Land Tenure and Property. Historically, a handful of landlords held near agricultural land. Civil servants frequently were paid in state grants, governing their land on an absentee footing and collecting taxes from tenant-farming peasants. Since the 1950s, efforts have been made to protect the rights of tenants, merely without the redistribution of land.
Overpopulation has exacerbated land shortages. Nearly every acre of arable land has been farmed intensively. Deforestation for forest and animal forage has created serious erosion.
Commercial Activities. The majority of commercial activity takes identify at small-scale, family unit-owned shops or in the stalls of sidewalk vendors. With the exception of locally grown fruits and vegetables, many products are imported from India and, to a lesser extent, China and the West. Jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches, shoes, chemicals, cement, and bricks are produced locally. Carpet and garment manufacturing has increased significantly, providing foreign commutation. Since the belatedly 1950s, tourism has increased rapidly; trekking, mountaineering, white-water rafting, and canoeing have fatigued tourists from the West and other parts of Asia. The tourism industry has sparked the commercial production of crafts and souvenirs and created a number of service positions, such as trekking guides and porters. Tourism as well has fueled the black market, where drugs are sold and foreign currency is exchanged.
Major Industries. There was no industrial development until the middle of the twentieth century. Much of earliest industrial development was accomplished with the assist of individual entrepreneurs from India and foreign aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the West. Early on development focused on the utilize of jute, sugar, and tea; modernistic industries include the manufacturing of brick, tile, and construction materials; newspaper making; grain processing; vegetable oil extraction; sugar refining; and the brewing of beer.
Trade. Nepal is heavily dependent on trade from India and Prc. The big majority of imported goods pass through India. Transportation of appurtenances is limited past the terrain. Although roads connect many major commercial centers, in much of the state goods are transported past porters and pack animals. The few roads are difficult to maintain and subject to landslides and flooding. Railroads in the southern flatlands connect many Terai cities to commercial centers in India but do not extend into the hills. Nepal's export appurtenances include carpets, clothing, leather appurtenances, jute, and grain. Tourism is another main export commodity. Imports include golden, mechanism and equipment, petroleum products, and fertilizers.
Division of Labor. Historically, degree was loosely correlated with occupational specialization. Tailors, smiths, and cobblers were the lowest, untouchable castes, and priests and warriors were the 2 highest Hindu castes. However, the big bulk of people are farmers, an occupation that is not caste-specific.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. Historically, caste and class status paralleled each other, with the highest castes having the most land, capital, and political influence. The lowest castes could not own property or receive an education. Although caste distinctions are no longer supported by law, caste relations accept shaped present-solar day social stratification: Untouchables proceed to be the poorest sector of society, while the upper castes tend to be wealthy and politically dominant. While land is all the same the master measure of wealth, some castes that specialize in trade and commerce take fared better under modern commercialism than take landowning castes. Changes in the economical and political organisation have opened some opportunities for members of historically disadvantaged castes.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Caste and indigenous groups are often identifiable by both physical traits and styles of dress and ornamentation. These symbols of ethnic identity along with distinctive forms of music, dance, and cuisine, continue to be important. The culture of caste Hindus is the national
Herding cattle down a dirt route. Grazing land is limited by the mountainous topography.
"prestige culture." In a process of "Sanskritization," members of various groups take acquired the customs, tastes, and habits of the ruling elite. Westernization is vying with Sanskritization as a cultural influence, and the ability to speak English is a mark of prestige and an nugget in the job market. In cities, most men and an increasing number of women article of clothing Western clothes. In the past, status was vested in the buying of land and livestock; modern status symbols include motorcycles, cars, fashionable clothing, televisions, and computers.
Political Life
Government. The Shah dynasty has ruled the state since its unification, except during the Rana period from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. During the Rana administration, the Shah monarchs were stripped of power and the country was ruled by a serial of prime ministers from the Rana noble family. In 1950, the Shah kings were restored to the throne and a ramble monarchy was established that somewhen took the form of the panchayat organization. Nether this system, political parties were illegal and the land was governed past local and national assemblies controlled by the palace. In 1990, the Movement for the Restoration of Republic (People'south Move) initiated a serial of popular demonstrations for democratic reforms, eventually forcing the king to abolish the panchayat organisation and institute a multiparty commonwealth.
The state is divided administratively into fourteen zones and seventy-five districts. Local and commune-level administers answer to national ministries that are guided by policies set by a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The majority party in the Business firm of Representatives appoints the prime minister. The executive co-operative consists of the king and the Council of Ministers.
Leadership and Political Officials. The authorities is plagued by corruption, and officials often rely on bribes to supplement their income. Information technology is widely believed that influence and employment in government are achieved through personal and family unit connections. The king is viewed with ambivalence. He and his family have been criticized for corruption and political repression, just photos of the royal family are a pop symbol of national identity and many people think of the king every bit the living embodiment of the nation and an avatar of the god Vishnu.
Social Problems and Control. International attention has focused on the plight of girls who have been lured or abducted from villages to work as prostitutes in Indian cities and child laborers in carpet factories. Prostitution has increased the spread of AIDS. Foreign boycotts of Nepali carpets accept helped curb the use of kid labor merely take not addressed the larger social problems that force children to go family wage earners.
War machine Activeness. The military is small and poorly equipped. Its primary purpose is to reinforce the police in maintaining domestic stability. Some Royal Nepal Regular army personnel have served in United Nations peacekeeping forces. A number of Nepalis, especially of the loma ethnic groups, have served in Gurkha regiments. To many villagers, service in the British Regular army represents a significant economic opportunity, and in some areas soldiers' remittances support the local economy.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
Aid organizations are involved in health intendance, family unit planning, community development, literacy, women'south rights, and economic development for depression castes and tribal groups. However, many projects are initiated without an understanding of the physical and cultural environment and serve the interests of strange companies and local elites.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Partition of Labor past Gender. Only men plow, while fetching water is more often than not considered women's piece of work. Women cook, treat children, wash wearing apparel, and collect firewood and provender. Men perform the heavier agronomical tasks and oftentimes engage in trade, portering, and other piece of work outside the hamlet. Both men and women perform physically demanding labor, but women tend to work longer hours, have less costless time, and die younger. In urban areas, men are far more likely to work outside the abode. Increasingly, educational opportunities are bachelor to both men and women, and there are women in professional positions. Women also oft work in family businesses as shopkeepers and seamstresses.
Children and older people are a valuable source of household labor. In rural families, young children collect firewood, listen animals, and sentinel younger children. Older people may serve on village councils. In urban areas and larger towns, children attend school; rural children may or may not, depending on the proximity of schools, the availability of teachers, and the piece of work required of them at dwelling house.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women often depict themselves as "the lower caste" in relation to men and generally occupy a subordinate social position. However, the freedoms and opportunities available to women vary widely by indigenous group and caste. Women of the highest castes accept their public mobility constrained, for their reputation is critical to family unit and caste award. Women of lower castes and classes often play a larger wage-earning role, have greater mobility, and are more than outspoken around men. Gender roles are slowly shifting in urban areas, where greater numbers of women are receiving an didactics and joining the work strength.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Matrimony. Nepal is overwhelmingly patrilineal and patrilocal. Arranged marriages are the norm in the mainstream culture. Considering marriages forge important social bonds between families, when a kid reaches marriageable age, the family elders are responsible for finding a suitable mate of the advisable caste, education level, and social stratum.
For Buddhist monks, Nepal is meaning as the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
The bride'due south family generally provides a substantial dowry to the groom's family unit, while the groom's family unit furnishes a much smaller gift of article of clothing, jewelry, and personal items to the bride. Both families are expected to host a feast during the wedding festivities, which generally terminal three days. The price of a wedding, especially to the helpmate's family, is high and oftentimes puts families into debt.
Hindu castes do not by and large approve of cross-cousin wedlock, which is preferred amongst some Mongolian ethnic groups. Amidst some groups, a brideprice substitutes for a dowry. In others, association exogamy is an of import characteristic of marriages. Until recently, polygyny was legal and relatively common. Now it is illegal and found only in the older generation and in remote areas. Child marriages were considered especially auspicious, and while they continue to be adept in rural areas, they are at present prohibited by law. Love marriage is gaining in popularity in the cities, where romantic films and music inform popular sentiment and the economy offers younger people economic independence from the extended family.
Domestic Unit. Among landholding Hindu castes, a high value is placed on joint family arrangements in which the sons of a household, along with their parents, wives, and children, live together, sharing resource and expenses. Within the household, the sometime have authority over the immature, and men over women. Typically, new daughters-in-law occupy the everyman position. Until a new bride has produced children, she is subject to the hardest work and often the harshest criticism in her husband'south household. Older women, often wield a smashing deal of influence within the household.
The emphasis in joint families is on filial loyalty and agnatic solidarity over individualism. In urban areas, an increasing number of couples are opting for nuclear family arrangements.
Inheritance. Fathers are legally obligated to leave equal portions of land to each son. Daughters practice non inherit paternal property unless they remain unmarried past historic period 30-five. Although ideally sons manage their father's land together as part of a articulation family, familial land tends to exist divided, with holdings diminishing in every generation.
Kin Groups. Patrilineal kin groups form the nucleus of households, role as corporate units, and decide inheritance patterns. A man belongs permanently to the kinship group of his father, while a woman changes membership from her natal kin grouping to the kin grouping of her married man at the fourth dimension of marriage. Because family connections are critical in providing access to political influence and economic opportunities, marriage alliances are planned carefully to aggrandize kinship networks and strengthen social ties. Although women join the husband's household, they maintain emotional ties and contact with their families. If a woman is mistreated in her husband'southward household, she may escape to her father's house or receive support from her male kin. Consequently, women often prefer to marry men from the aforementioned villages.
Nepalese men in a nuptials ceremony; bundled marriages are the norm in mainstream civilization.
Socialization
Babe Care. Infants are carried on the mothers' back, held by a shawl tied tightly beyond her breast. Babies are breast-fed on need, and sleep with their mothers until they are displaced by a new baby or are old enough to share a bed with siblings. Infants and modest children frequently wear amulets and bracelets to protect them from supernatural forces. Parents sometimes line a baby's optics with kohl to forbid eye infections.
Child Rearing and Education. Mothers are the primary providers of child care, but children too are cared for and socialized by older siblings, cousins, and grandparents. Often children as young as five or six mind younger children. Neighbors are entitled to cuddle, instruct, and discipline children, who are in plow expected to obey and defer to senior members of the family and community. Children address their elders by using the honorific course of Nepali, while adults speak to children using more than familiar language. Because authority in households depends on seniority, the relative ages of siblings is important and children are oftentimes addressed by birth order.
Sure household rituals mark key stages in child'due south development, including the commencement gustatory modality of rice and the first haircut. When a girl reaches puberty, she goes through a period of seclusion in which she is prohibited from seeing male family members. Although she may receive special foods and is not expected to work, the experience is an acknowledgment of the pollution associated with female sexuality and reproductivity.
From an early age, children are expected to contribute labor to the household. The law entitles both girls and boys to schooling; nevertheless, if a family unit needs help at dwelling or cannot spare the money for uniforms, books, and schoolhouse fees, only the sons are sent to school. It is believed that education is wasted on girls, who will marry and take their wage-earning abilities to another household. Boys marry and stay at home, and their education is considered a wise investment.
Etiquette
The customary greeting is to press one's palms together in forepart of the chest and say namaste ("I greet the god within you"). Men in urban areas have adopted the custom of shaking hands. In the mainstream culture, physical contact between the sexes is not advisable in public. Although men may be openly affectionate with men and women with women, even married couples do not demonstrate physical affection in public. Some ethnic groups permit more than open contact betwixt the sexes.
Hospitality is essential. Guests are always offered food and are not permitted to aid with food preparation or cleaning after a meal. Information technology is polite to consume with but the right manus; the hand used to eat food must not touch anything else until information technology has been thoroughly done, for saliva is considered defiling. When drinking from a mutual h2o vessel, people do not touch the rim to their lips. Information technology is insulting to hit someone with a shoe or sandal, bespeak the soles of 1's feet at someone, and step over a person.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. Eighty-six percent of Nepalis are Hindus, 8 percentage are Buddhists, four pct are Muslims, and simply over 1 per centum are Christians. On a day-to-day level, Hindus practice their faith by "doing puja, " making offerings and prayers to particular deities. While certain days and occasions are designated every bit cheering, this grade of worship can be performed at whatever time.
Buddhism is practiced in the Theravadan course. There are two primary Buddhist traditions: the Buddhism of Tibetan refugees and high-altitude indigenous groups with cultural roots in Tibet and the Tantric form skilful by Newars.
At that place is a potent animistic and shamanic tradition. Belief in ghosts, spirits, and witchcraft is widespread, especially in rural areas. Spiteful witches, hungry ghosts, and angry spirits are idea to inflict affliction and misfortune. Shamans mediate between the homo and supernatural realms to discover the crusade of illness and recommend treatment.
Religious Practitioners. Many forms of Hindu worship practise not require the mediation of a priest. At key rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, Brahmin priests read Vedic scriptures and ensure the correct performance of rituals. At temples, priests care for religious icons, which are believed to contain the essence of the deities they represent. They are responsible for ensuring the purity of the temple and overseeing elaborate pujas.
Buddhist monasteries train young initiates in philosophy and meditation. Lay followers gain religious merit past making fiscal contributions to monasteries, where religious rites are performed on behalf of the general population. Within Buddhism at that place is a clerical hierarchy, with highly esteemed lamas occupying the positions of greatest influence. Monks and nuns of all ranks shave their heads, wear maroon robes, and encompass a life of celibacy and religious observance.
Rituals and Holy Places. Nepal occupies a special place in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Co-ordinate to Hindu mythology, the Himalayas are the abode of the gods, and are specifically associated with Shiva, one of the three principal Hindu deities. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is among the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims from all over South Asia. Pashupatinath is only ane of thousands of temples and shrines scattered throughout Nepal, nonetheless. In the Kathmandu Valley alone, there are hundreds of such shrines, large and small, in which the major gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, as well as local and minor divinities, are worshiped. Many of these shrines are constructed most rivers or at the base of pipal trees, which are themselves considered sacred. For Buddhists, Nepal is pregnant equally the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is besides home to a number of important Buddhist monasteries and supas, including Boudha and Swayambhu, whose domeshaped compages and painted all-seeing optics take become symbols of the Kathamandu Valley.
Death and the Afterlife. Hindus and Buddhists believe in reincarnation. An individual'south meritorious deportment in life volition grant him or her a college rebirth. In both religions the immediate goal is to alive virtuously in order to motility progressively through higher births and college states of consciousness. Ultimately, the goal is to attain enlightenment, stopping the cycle of rebirth.
In the Hindu tradition, the dead are cremated, preferably on the banks of a river. It is customary for a son to perform the funeral rites. Some Buddhists also cremate bodies. Others perform what are called "sky burials," in which corpses are cut up and left at sacred sites for vultures to carry away.
Medicine and Wellness Care
Infant mortality is loftier, respiratory and intestinal diseases are owned, and malnutrition is widespread in a country where life expectancy is fifty-seven years. Contributing to this situation are poverty, poor hygiene, and lack of health care. There are hospitals only in urban areas, and they are poorly equipped and unhygienic. Rural health clinics ofttimes lack personnel, equipment, and medicines. Western biomedical practices take social prestige, just many poor people cannot beget this type of health care. Many people consult shamans and other religious practitioners. Others expect to Ayurvedic medicine, in which illness is thought to be caused by imbalances in the actual humors. Treatment involves correcting these imbalances, principally through nutrition. Nepalis combine Ayurvedic, shamanic, biomedical, and other systems.
Although health weather are poor, malaria has been eradicated. Evolution efforts have focused on immunization, nascency control, and bones medical care. However, the success of all such projects seems to correlate with the didactics levels of women, which are extremely low.
The Arts and Humanities
Literature. Nepal's literary tradition dates only to the nineteenth century with Bhanubhakta Acharya'southward adaptation of the Hindu epic, Ramayana, for a Nepali readership. The development of literature in Nepal has been hindered by heavy government control and censorship, which led Nepali authors and poets to seek publication outside of Nepal until the 1930s, when Nepal's first literary periodical,
A Nepalese person carrying a wicker basket filled with fuel.
Sharada, created a more open venue for literary expression. Among Nepal's greatest writers and poets are Lakshmi Prasad Devkota, Lekhnath Paudyal, Balkrishna Sama, and Guruprasad Mainali.
Graphic Arts. Much of Nepali art is religious. Newari artisans create cast-bronze bronze of Buddhist and Hindu deities besides equally intricately painted tangkas that draw Buddhist cosmology. The creation and contemplation of such fine art constitutes a religious act.
Performance Arts. Dramatic productions often focus on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics, although political satire and other comedic forms are likewise popular. There is a rich musical heritage, with a number of distinctive instruments and song styles, and music has become an marking of identity for the younger generation. Older people prefer folk and religious music; younger people, especially in urban areas, are attracted to romantic and experimental film music besides as fusions of Western and Asian genres.
The State of the Concrete and Social Sciences
Universities are underfunded, faculties are poorly paid, and library resources are meager. Nepalis accord less respect to degrees from universities than to degrees obtained away and many scholars seek opportunities to study overseas or in India. Despite these limitations, some fine scholarship has emerged, particularly in the social sciences. In the post-1990 period, political reforms have permitted a more open and critical intellectual environs.
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—M ARIE K AMALA N ORMAN
As well read commodity about Nepal from Wikipedia
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